There is comprehensive training on corruption issues in military schools and academies. The course on military ethics and deontology also addresses this question [1]. There are also an anti-corruption focal point within the Ministry of Defence. Together with the Ministerial Committee for Risk Management (CMMR), the Ministry of Defence organises an awareness-raising campaign for troops and military authorities on the risks associated with corruption. This awareness/training is organized in all the fire stations and with the specific missions. For reasons of budgetary limitations, it is organized once a year [2]. In addition, there is a cell for promoting integrity and fighting corruption in the Beninese Armed Forces which is responsible for ensuring that all personnel adopt good practices and a periodic evaluation and tours are carried out for this purpose in the various garrisons. However, it is difficult to provide proof of the content of the training of the Beninese armed forces, because these modules are not made public.

No training on corruption is required for commanders. Only irregular training on the subject is given to military officers designated by the military command. These are not the training sessions formally scheduled for commanders within the army, insofar as participants are designated fairly randomly, irrespective of their posts of assignment . These training sessions are not initiated by the army command but by civil society organizations such as OLUCOME , (Organisations de Lutte contre la Corruption et les Malversations Economiques or other army partners). [1] [2]

Within the Cameroon Defence Forces, there is no specific or known training on corruption. However, as mentioned above, CONAC organises training on fighting corruption for all Ministries, including the Ministry of Defence. Cameroon also has different military schools. Some train non-commissioned soldiers (like Koutaba), while others train officers (such as Ecole militaire interarmées – EMIA). In addition, there are schools offering nine-month programmes for senior officers. After graduating from EMIA and becoming an officer (lieutenant), a Cameroonian officer typically undergoes further training during his career to obtain various certificates (Certificat d’état major – CEM-, Diplôme d’état major – DEM) and diplomas (Brevet d’études militaires supérieures -BEMS), which lead to the grades of captain and commander. They later study at the Ecole supérieure internationale de guerre, which results in ranks of colonel and general. Throughout these stages, there are no specific courses on corruption, but corruption and human rights violations are mentioned and condemned in lessons on ethics and deontology. Professors at those military schools teach soldiers that corruption is ethically wrong, condemned by the code of military justice and can have negative operational consequences. Soldiers consulted also said there is no specific course on corruption, because there is no evidence that the planning or execution of military operations in Cameroon is affected by corruption.[1][2] Others mentioned that at Ecole supérieure internationale de Guerre de Simbock (Ecole de Guerre for colonel and general) and at the General Staff School or the International Security Forces School – EIFORCES (for “commissaires principaux” and “commissaires divisionnaires” of the Police forces, the highest rank within the police), lessons tackling corruption and human rights violations are much more developed.[3]

Although there is no specific “anti-corruption” module, this training is provided at all levels and in all units. Commanders emphasise this point at the academy and in the units. Training is provided either as part of the teaching modules or as part of unit training [1, 2].

Pre-deployment training for commanders does not specifically include instruction on the risks of corruption. Instead, it emphasises enhancing commanders’ understanding of existing regulations. The underlying assumption is that a comprehensive grasp and application of these regulations will effectively mitigate corruption risks. (1) (2)

Recently appointed CDF Gen Charles Kahariri invited the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (EACC). Mr. Twalib Mbarak, the Secretary and Chief Executive Officer of the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission to discuss how EACC could support KDF in building on existing ethics and anti -corruption measures. The KDF are interested in how EACC can support them to curb recruitment malpractices [1]. Based on available evidence, there seems to be an arrangement between MoD with EACC on building their capacity on tackling corruption. However there is little information on whether EACC has conducted corruption risks assessments on MoD and how these courses are run. Regarding deployment, the AU Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) and United Nations offer trainings to contingents posted on Peace Support Operations [2]. The International Peace Training and Support Centre organises seminars and short courses before deployment. While they have a course on governance, there is limited information available on entire module and it is unclear whether the course includes accountability, transparency and anti-corruption [3].

With the AFL’s attachment to the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM), positive changes are now emerging. Further reinforcing this transformation, a 2021 collaboration between the Michigan National Guard and the AFL focused on enhancing the role of military legal advisors in promoting the rule of law. This initiative aimed to deepen military adherence to legal norms and support the prosecution of terrorists, reflecting ongoing efforts to professionalise the AFL and embed human rights considerations into its operations.[1] The AFL initiated a Non-commissioned Officer Academy at the AFL’s Armed Forces Training Center. The course accomplishes the AFL’s long-term goal to plan, lead and execute a professional military education program to develop its own enlisted leaders.[2]
AFL’s partnership with AFRICOM and the Michigan National Guard have strengthened training programs emphasising rule of law, ethical governance, and integrity, particularly through the establishment of the Non-commissioned Officer Academy and the legal advisor initiative. These programs embed ethics, into AFL commander training and professional military education.[3]
However, there is no precision regarding if this training sessions address explictly corruption issues at all levels.

In the military academies, training on the fight against corruption exists. They are deployed by international partners [1] but also by official institutions of the anti-corruption system such as Bianco [2]. Some training is aimed directly at the heads of military regiments, especially for officers newly appointed to command positions [2]. The training focuses in particular on the challenges of the fight against corruption as well as common offenses in this area in the military environment [3]. For military students, training is compulsory but for others, it is on demand. But no training prior to deployments for particular missions is provided.

There is no specific program for defence and security forces that requires compulsory training for leaders on corruption. They are subject to general legislation on good practices and conduct, as well as on prohibitions.[1][2]

In the courses taught at the Military Training Centre, Sergeant School, Military Academy and Higher Institute of Defence Studies, training on corruption issues is offered to commanders at all levels [1]. This training is delivered as part of military education in all military educational institutions for specific missions [2, 3]. However, the training needs to be more effective in terms of content, legislation, ethical practices and explanation of the threats that corruption poses to the Armed Forces and National Security. Strengthening these areas will help ensure that military personnel consistently uphold anti-corruption practices [4].

There is no known structured training on corruption issues for commanders at any level in Niger. Prior to the military coup of July 26, 2023, international partners such as EUCAP Sahel and the United States provided various forms of training to military and police forces, which included ethics and good governance components [1][2]. However, these trainings did not specifically focus on corruption issues, nor did they systematically equip commanders with the necessary tools to address corruption-related challenges during deployment.
With the coup and the subsequent withdrawal of key international training partners, including the European Union and the United States, the overall availability of training programs has significantly diminished [3][4]. As a result, the likelihood of commanders receiving any form of structured education on corruption risks and mitigation strategies has further decreased.

Although there is some training on some issues relating to corruption, the training available tends to be context-specific and the subject matter far from comprehensive. For example, the implications or connection between corruption and operational efficiency and effectiveness are not demonstrated or understood [1]. Overall, Nigeria has no known training in corruption issues for commanders. This is evidenced in the high rate of commanders’ involvement in cases of corruption, especially those bordering on procurement. For instance, one of the reasons for the historical inability of the military to win war on armed irritants is corruption of the endemic species within the highest echelon of the Federal Ministry of Defence and inside of the various segments of the military. In 2022, ICPC chairman said that said some former military and security personnel are being investigated for embezzlement of funds [2]. Kleptocratic and selfish Generals have been fingered, indicted and legally punished for groundbreaking crime of corruption and crude theft of resources meant for the purchase of vital military weapons to crush these terrorists. Corruption, such as procurement corruption is responsible for buying of substandard weapons thereby exposing the fighters to the dangers being constantly overpowered and killed by terrorists [3].

Anti-corruption training for operational commanders is ad hoc, usually dependent on external partnerships or internal initiatives, and is not standardised.There is training in corruption issues that is required for commanders at some levels or in some units according to the needs. However the content of training only addresses many issures including but limited to corruption [1] . The fight against corruption is included in the training of commanding officers at the training school. Depending on the missions and units to which they belong (and whether or not they are exposed to corruption), they regularly receive capacity-building sessions as part of their work, and some of these sessions focus on corruption, but are not limited to it. [2]

There is no evidence that anti-corruption training is provided ahead of deployments. The Department of Defence does, however, perform fraud and corruption awareness raising activities to promote whistleblowing. [1]

At the centre of corruption allegations, military officers have been named in several reports as being involved in various forms of corruption. Several reports have naming military officers of being involved in corruption. For example, an investigation done by The Sentry revealed that “high-ranking military leaders, and three opposition militia leaders have engaged in business activities indicative of money laundering and corruption”[1]. Moreover, a report by OHCHR linked “… Government officials, international corporations, military personnel, and multinational banks in corruption activities” [2]. Despite these allegations, there is no evidence that the military or the Ministry of Defence and Veteran affairs has not integrated training on corruption issues for commanders. An interview with a senior SPLM officer also confirmed that his training did not include corruption issues [3].

Trainings take place even though they are not regular due to financial constraints and also there many military officials that need training other than the commanders. The Uganda People’s Defence Forces (UPDF) conduct training programs targeting officers at various levels, including junior officers. [1][2]
However, there is no available evidence that a comprehensive training in corruption issues is a component of UPDF trainings. While the National Defence College – Uganda (NDC-U) has been instrumental in educating senior military officers, for example, during graduation ceremonies, leaders, including President Museveni, have underscored the importance of integrity and the detrimental effects of corruption, explicit anti-corruption training as part of the curriculum is not prominently detailed. In the same regard, at the Uganda Military Academy in Kabamba, President Museveni cautioned newly commissioned officers against engaging in corruption, labelling it as “incorrect.” Despite these admonitions, there is no clear indication that structured anti-corruption training is a mandatory component of the cadet training program [3] [4].
The UPDF has conducted courses for company commanders, where leaders have been urged to combat corruption and other malpractices. Nevertheless, the extent to which anti-corruption training is integrated into these courses remains unspecified.

There is no training of commanders on corruption issues [1]. The idea of training of commanders is not even an issue to be considered by the government and even by the defence forces [1,2]. In fact, deployment could be a window of opportunity for commanders to engage in corruption [1]. The context of deployment is a where commander loot soldiers rations and other military equipment meant for soldiers use and operation of the deployment [3].