The Constitution of Benin does not permit compulsory conscription since 1990 [1]. This is confirmed by the law [2] and military officers and specialist Iinterviewed [3].

The Constitution of Benin does not permit compulsory conscription since 1990. [1]. This is confirmed by the law [2] and military officers and specialist Iinterviewed [3].

The Constitution of Benin does not permit compulsory conscription since 1990 [1]. This is confirmed by the law [2] and military officers and specialist Iinterviewed [3].

There is currently no compulsory conscription in Burundi so this indicator is marked Not Applicable. [1]

There is currently no compulsory conscription in Burundi so this indicator is marked Not Applicable. [1]

There is currently no compulsory conscription in Burundi so this indicator is marked Not Applicable. [1]

Since Cameroon does not implement a system of compulsory conscription, the issue of bribery to avoid military service is not addressed by any formal policy or regulation within the country’s legal or military structure. In countries where compulsory conscription exists, the government typically enacts strict laws to ensure that citizens fulfill their national service obligations, with mechanisms to prevent individuals from using financial or personal connections to bypass this duty. These laws often include penalties for those who attempt to bribe officials, as well as measures to monitor and enforce the fairness of the conscription process. However, in Cameroon, military service is not mandatory, and therefore, the concept of compulsory conscription does not apply. The Cameroonian military relies primarily on voluntary recruitment for its forces, meaning that citizens are not obligated by law to serve in the military. This means that there are no regulations or legal frameworks explicitly focused on preventing bribery related to conscription, as such a system is not part of the national defence structure. [1]. As there is no legal requirement for individuals to be conscripted into the military, there is no need for policies to address bribery in this context. The focus of the Cameroonian defense system is more on voluntary recruitment, where individuals can choose to enlist if they wish. While bribery could theoretically still occur in various administrative processes within the military or other state functions, the absence of compulsory conscription removes the necessity of specifically addressing bribery related to avoiding military service [2].Given the lack of a conscription law, the government does not need to establish separate procedures to prevent such bribery or ensure fairness in the conscription process. The absence of compulsory service means that concerns over people using money or political connections to escape conscription do not exist in Cameroon’s military policy. Therefore, without any conscription system in place, there is no need for policies aimed at curbing bribery in this regard.

In Cameroon, the concept of compulsory military conscription does not exist, which means that there are no established sanctions for bribery related to avoiding conscription. Unlike in countries where military service is mandatory, Cameroon relies on voluntary recruitment for its armed forces. As a result, there are no legal provisions that specifically criminalize the act of bribing officials to evade military service, as the obligation to serve does not exist in the first place [1]. In countries with compulsory conscription, governments often implement strict anti-corruption measures to prevent individuals from using financial resources or political connections to avoid military service. These measures typically include criminal prosecution, dismissal from public service, and financial penalties to deter bribery. However, Cameroon does not have such mechanisms because the issue of compulsory service evasion is irrelevant in its military recruitment framework [2].
The legal framework governing military service in Cameroon focuses on voluntary enlistment, professional military careers, and contractual service agreements between the government and recruited personnel. This system does not necessitate the creation of punitive measures for avoiding service through bribery. Additionally, no official reports or legal documents indicate that bribery to evade military service is a concern within the country’s defense administration [1]. In conclusion, because there is no conscription policy in Cameroon, there is no legal framework addressing bribery to evade service. Consequently, no sanctions or punitive measures exist to deter such actions. This makes the sub-indicator irrelevant in the Cameroonian context [1][2].

Since Cameroon does not implement compulsory conscription, there are no enforcement mechanisms in place to address bribery related to avoiding military service. This renders the sub-indicator irrelevant in the Cameroonian context. Countries that enforce mandatory military service typically establish oversight bodies and anti-corruption mechanisms to ensure compliance and deter bribery. However, Cameroon’s military service operates on a voluntary basis, eliminating the need for enforcement measures against conscription-related bribery [1]. The absence of enforcement structures for conscription-related bribery is consistent with broader governance trends in Cameroon. Reports from international organizations indicate that while corruption is a significant issue in various sectors of the government, it does not extend to a non-existent conscription system. The African Governance Report 2023 notes systemic challenges in Cameroon’s public administration, including corruption and weak enforcement of anti-bribery laws, but does not highlight military conscription as an area of concern [2]. Similarly, the Cameroon 2023 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State points to issues of corruption within law enforcement, judiciary processes, and administrative sectors but does not indicate that bribery related to military service is a relevant problem. This further reinforces that there is no need for enforcement measures against a practice that does not exist in the country [3]. In conclusion, due to the absence of compulsory military service in Cameroon, there are no enforcement mechanisms addressing bribery to avoid conscription. This sub-indicator is therefore not applicable in the Cameroonian context [1][2][3][4].

There is no compulsory military service so this indicator is not applicable. The army may recruit on an exceptional basis, but there is no conscription [1, 2].

There is no compulsory military service so this indicator is not applicable. The army may recruit on an exceptional basis, but there is no conscription [1, 2].

There is no compulsory military service so this indicator is not applicable. The army may recruit on an exceptional basis, but there is no conscription [1, 2].

There is no conscription policy for recruitment into the Ghana Armed Forces and other security services in Ghana. (1)

There is no conscription policy for recruitment into the Ghana Armed Forces and other security services in Ghana. (1)

There is no conscription policy for recruitment into the Ghana Armed Forces and other security services in Ghana. (1)

Kenya does not have compulsory conscription. Military service in the Kenya Defence Forces is voluntary [1].

As Kenya does not have compulsory conscription, this indicators is marked as Not Applicable [1, 2].

As Kenya does not have compulsory conscription, this indicators is marked as Not Applicable [1, 2].

There is no compulsory conscription. It is against the National Defense Act of 2008, likewise, the National Security Strategy of 2008.[1] Recruitment into the Armed Forces of Liberia has to be the number one criteria.[2] Ensuring geographic and ethnic balance are among some of the criteria. The process is deliberate, systematic and orderly.

This is not applicable to Liberia for there are no compulsory conscription in Liberia.[1][2]

This is not applicable to Liberia for there are no compulsory conscription in Liberia.[1][2]

The text on national service requires all young people aged nineteen to thirty-one to take the military aptitude test. But no compulsory conscription exists [1] [2].

The text on national service requires all young people aged nineteen to thirty-one to take the military aptitude test. But no compulsory conscription exists . [1] [2]

The text on national service requires all young people aged nineteen to thirty-one to take the military aptitude test. But no compulsory conscription exists .[1] [2]

Compulsory conscription does not exist in Mali so this indicator is marked Not Applicable. [1]

Compulsory conscription does not exist in Mali so this indicator is marked Not Applicable. [1]

Compulsory conscription does not exist in Mali so this indicator is marked Not Applicable. [1]

Mozambique has compulsory military conscription. All Mozambican citizens—both men and women—must register for military service when they turn 18 years old. However, actual enlistment is selective, meaning not everyone who registers is called up for service. Recruitment for Military Service is governed by a specific law, the Military Service Law, approved in 1997 [1] and revised in 2023 by Law No. 19/2023, of December 29 [2]. The Anti-Corruption Law [3] and the Strategy for Preventing and Combating Corruption in Public Administration [4] are applicable instruments for preventing corruption and bribery in recruitment processes [4]. Bribery and passive and active corruption are crimes defined by law (Penal Code) and are punishable [5].

In terms of sanctions, cases of corruption and bribery are punished by law and include administrative disciplinary proceedings, which culminate in a warning, public repression, fine, demotion, dismissal, expulsion [1] or criminal proceedings that culminate in imprisonment and confiscation of assets, depending on the specific cases and level of severity [2]. Sanctions for cases of corruption and bribery are set out in national anti-corruption legislation, such as the Penal Code, the Anti-Corruption Law, with penalties ranging from 2 to 8 years, unless a more severe penalty applies under other relevant legal provisions [3, 4]. Additional disciplinary rules are contained in the Statute of State Agents and Officials [5] and in the Statute of the Military of the Armed Forces of Defence of Mozambique [6].

In terms of enforcement, the sanctions are inconsistently applied in cases of bribery and are little known publicly. For example, it is alleged that some top national security members [1, 2] have denounced cases of corruption and bribery in recruitment processes and military education institutions, but the outcome of the cases has not been publicly known.

In Niger, compulsory conscription is not currently enforced, and the greater concern appears to be bribery for securing a position in the armed forces rather than avoiding it. Given the precarious economic conditions, high unemployment rates, and the military’s guarantee of stable employment and salary [1], it is more likely that individuals would pay bribes to enter the armed forces rather than to evade service [2]. Additionally, the worsening security situation, persistent terrorist threats, and ongoing military operations have increased the demand for military personnel. The lack of transparency in recruitment procedures further raises concerns about possible favoritism, nepotism, or bribery in accessing military careers, especially following the July 26, 2023, coup, which has consolidated military control over state institutions and reduced external oversight. There are no known official policies or regulations explicitly addressing bribery related to avoiding conscription, nor are there documented procedures for investigating or sanctioning such offenses.

The 2003 Military Penal Code [1] and the Public Penal Code [2] provide legal frameworks for addressing bribery and corruption within the defence sector, including potential cases related to military recruitment. Article 228 of the Military Penal Code criminalizes corruption, theft, and related offenses within the armed forces, prescribing dismissal, demotion, or imprisonment for offenders. Additionally, the military police, under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Defence, is responsible for investigating and prosecuting violations within the military (Articles 46-48). The Public Penal Code reinforces anti-corruption measures, with Chapter III, Section 7 prescribing prison sentences ranging from two to ten years and fines between 50,000 and 1,000,000 CFA francs for corruption and influence peddling (Article 130). Article 132 explicitly criminalizes soliciting, accepting, or offering bribes, which, in theory, would apply to cases of bribery in military recruitment. However, in the absence of compulsory conscription in Niger, bribery is more likely to occur in efforts to secure a position in the armed forces rather than to avoid service. Given the economic instability, high unemployment rates, and the military’s offer of stable employment and salary, military careers are highly sought after, increasing the risk of favouritism, nepotism, or bribery in recruitment processes. Additionally, the deteriorating security environment and ongoing counterinsurgency operations have intensified the demand for military personnel, creating an incentive for potential recruits to seek illicit means of entry. The lack of transparency in recruitment procedures, coupled with the consolidation of military control following the July 26, 2023 coup, further limits oversight and accountability in the selection process. While laws exist in theory to penalize bribery and corruption, there is no publicly available evidence of their enforcement in military recruitment or selection processes. Furthermore, the penalties prescribed by law remain weak, particularly financial sanctions, which are relatively low and unlikely to serve as a strong deterrent.

No actual cases of bribery being punished were found. Not enough evidence was found to properly evaluate the sub-indicator . [1][2]

There is no known conscription policy in the Nigerian military [1]. As a result, this indicator is marked as Not Applicable.

There is no known conscription policy in the Nigerian military [1]. As a result, this indicator is marked as Not Applicable.

There is no known conscription policy in the Nigerian military [1]. As a result, this indicator is marked as Not Applicable.

Military service is compulsory in Senegal from the age of 20 to 60, but this provision of the Constitution is balanced by the use of voluntary service, for reasons of realism and lack of resources [3] . There are two types of bribery: active bribery (where the initiative comes from the bribe-taker) and passive bribery (where the bribe-taker makes promises, gains or presents). [1] . The provisions of the Criminal Code punish the actions of both public officials and employees of private companies who, in the performance of their duties, have improperly received gifts, commissions, bribes or other gifts. The Criminal Code distinguishes between active bribery, which is committed by the briber (articles 159 to 163), and passive bribery, or concussion, which is committed by the bribe-taker (articles 156 to 158). Accordingly, under articles 156, 157 and 157 of the Senegalese Criminal Code, it is strictly forbidden for public officials to solicit or demand gifts, presents or funds in order to perform or refrain from performing a task related to their duties. [2] . HAlthowever,ugh these provisions do not precisely mention corruption in the context of avoiding conscription, they could be applied to it.

Violation of the provisions of articles 156, 157 and 157 of the Senegalese Criminal Code will result in imprisonment of between two and ten years for the accused and between one and five years for their clerks or agents; a fine of between 250,000 and 500,000 francs will always be imposed, in accordance with article 156. [2] However, these provisions are not specifically for soliciting preferred postings through bribery.

In the event of an accusation of corruption, whether it’s a case of bribes to avoid conscription or any other case of corruption, if it is proven, the person will be punished in accordance with the law, so that his case can serve as an example for others. [1] The country has drawn on ratified international standards and benchmarks developed at African level to adapt the legal framework for the fight against corruption. Beyond the legal framework, even if there are certain limitations, in operational terms the authorities are doing their best to comply with the law. [2] However, no example of sanctions in cases of bribery to avoid conscription in Senegal has been found.

South Africa does not make use of conscription and there are no enabling provisions for conscription in the current Defence Act. [1]

South Africa does not make use of conscription [1].

South Africa does not make use of conscription [1].

Section 20 of the SPLA Act 2009 on Enrolment Policy states that recruitment into the SPLA military service shall be voluntary, except where the Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly, on the recommendation of the President, decides or deems it otherwise. [1] There is no compulsory conscription in South Sudan; therefore, this indicator is scored Not Applicable.

Section 20 of the SPLA Act 2009 on Enrolment Policy states that recruitment into the SPLA military service shall be voluntary, except where the Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly, on the recommendation of the President, decides or deems it otherwise. [1] There is no compulsory conscription in South Sudan; therefore, this indicator is scored Not Applicable.

Section 20 of the SPLA Act 2009 on Enrolment Policy states that recruitment into the SPLA military service shall be voluntary, except where the Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly, on the recommendation of the President, decides or deems it otherwise. [1] There is no compulsory conscription in South Sudan; therefore, this indicator is scored Not Applicable.

Uganda does not have compulsory conscription. The Uganda People’s Defence Forces (UPDF) is a voluntary force, and recruitment is based on willing applicants meeting specific eligibility criteria, such as age, education, and physical fitness. It regards to the willingness to join the armed forces rather than forceful conscription and offer may be made to enable enlistment [1].
The UPDF Act, 2005 provides for the mobilization of reserves or civilians in times of national security threats, but there is no standing law that enforces mandatory military service for all citizens. [2]

The UPDF Act, 2005 provides for the mobilization of reserves or civilians in times of national security threats, but there is no standing law that enforces mandatory military service for all citizens.[1]

The UPDF Act, 2005 provides for the mobilization of reserves or civilians in times of national security threats, but there is no standing law that enforces mandatory military service for all citizens.[1]

There is no conscription in Zimbabwe, for those entering the Zimbabwe defence forces. [1]

There is no conscription in Zimbabwe, for those entering the Zimbabwe defence forces. [1]

There is no conscription in Zimbabwe, for those entering the Zimbabwe defence forces. [1]