Within the Ministry of Defense, there is a consistent and clear commitment to fight against corruption [1]. The Defence Minister, the Chief of Defence, and Single Service Chiefs have made internal declarations about their commitment to anti-corruption. Internal communication between military personnel is effective and focuses on the need not to get into situations that could lead them to corruption [2], whether through training on the fight against corruption organised at the Ministry of Defence or through national programs or internal sessions before departure for operational missions. Beyond the fact that some think that the military cannot be confronted with cases of corruption because it is not in a service delivery environment, this training makes it possible to put the fight against corruption at the center of military missions [1]. The importance of the fight also relates to the need for the military to serve the country with a sense of patriotism, in all circumstances [2].

There are no public statements made by the Minister of Defense or the Chief of Defense regarding anti-corruption or integrity among personnel.[1][4] There is no framework for discussing the topic of corruption with journalists or Civil Society Organizations [2]. Not because it is a new topic or hostile to the defense sector, but because the opportunities to express oneself on the issue do not put the military sector as a target [3].

It is important to clarify that the promotion of integrity and the reduction of corruption are an integral part of the priorities of military authorities and personnel. According to people interviewed, there is a clear commitment expressed by senior ministry staff and senior armed forces officers at many occasions or meeting with personnels of troops like unit parades, graduation ceremonies.[1] [2] They make explicit reference to integrity and good defence governance, and sensitize personnels on management of corruption risks [1] [2] [3].

Internally, as part of a moral dialogue, the Minister of Defence and the head of the National Defence Forces constantly call on soldiers of all ranks to respect republican values, including integrity, and to ensure good management of means placed at their disposal.The anti-corruption measures taken are rare and superficial, involving only transfers from one department to another. They are in fact rare in that they only intervene when there is a lot of media hype surrounding an internal army affair. For example when in the media, we talk about the poor management of the management of military constructions. They are also superficial in that they do not involve real sanctions against corrupt agents but just changes of positions. [1] [2]

Publicly, the Minister of Defence or the head of the national defence force never talk about corruption as such. Instead, they talk generally about the importance of the values of integrity within the army [1] [2]. The Minister of Defence categorically denies the existence of cases of corruption within the army. [3]

Senior officials from the Ministry of Defence and the General Staff of the Armed Forces often repeat the communications of the minister and the Head of the Defence forces [1] [2]. They do this during military meetings in the camps, in the words they say when saluting the flag, etc. These are therefore occasional interventions which do not deepen the tackling of corruption [1].

TThe Defence Ministry in Cameroon and its leadership have made limited, if any, explicit internal or public commitments to anti-corruption and integrity measures. Public communication from defense officials, including the Minister and Chiefs of Defense, primarily focuses on national security achievements, such as counterterrorism operations and regional security collaborations, with scant attention given to transparency, accountability, or anti-corruption efforts [1] [2].
There are no available official press releases, speeches, or policy briefs that articulate a clear institutional stance on anti-corruption. No anti-corruption campaigns or integrity commitments have been formally communicated via the Ministry’s website, military press, or state media outlets.
This omission in public discourse diminishes trust in the sector’s integrity and hinders effective public oversight. Internally, there is little evidence that anti-corruption measures are actively promoted or prioritised within the defence sector [2].
While isolated discussions on ethics may occur at the unit level, they are not supported by a structured institutional communication strategy, nor are they visible in internal bulletins, circulars, or ministerial guidance. Policies addressing integrity issues, if they exist, are neither well-publicised nor emphasised in official communications, limiting their visibility and impact.

In Cameroon, the Defence Ministry and its leadership, including the Defence Minister and Chiefs of Defence, show minimal public commitment to anti-corruption and integrity measures. Public communication mainly highlights operational achievements like counterterrorism and regional security but seldom addresses transparency or accountability, suggesting low prioritization of integrity within the defense sector. The lack of explicit commitments is visible in the ministry’s narratives, where operational successes dominate discussions, but there’s little focus on combating corruption or ensuring transparency. [1][2]

The Ministry of Defence in Cameroon has shown limited public commitment to anti-corruption through official statements [3]. While public statements are frequent regarding operational successes, such as counterterrorism efforts, there is an absence of direct references to anti-corruption measures, integrity, or accountability [2]. These issues are not prominently addressed in speeches, at unit parades, during graduation ceremonies, or in service publications [1]. Senior Ministry staff and armed forces officers rarely make declarations on the importance of transparency or combatting corruption [2]. In contrast, discussions around financial mismanagement, delayed fund disbursements, or procurement irregularities are generally absent in public statements by the Ministry’s leadership [3]. This lack of public commitment to anti-corruption through formal and informal channels suggests that anti-corruption efforts are not prioritized in the public discourse [1].

The Ivorian military authorities are clearly committed to fighting corruption. Measures are being taken at all levels to raise public awareness of this phenomenon. At graduation ceremonies, for example, speeches delivered to future soldiers emphasise the harmful effects of corruption. As part of the fight against terrorism, the military authorities underscore the importance of good relations with the local population by highlighting the dangers of racketeering. Military courts have been called upon to assist. Officers relay the message in their reports [1, 2]. Unfortunately, this message remains timid and soldiers denounce the illicit enrichment they suspect their superiors of engaging in.

The military authorities have made public their actions against corruption. They also publicly acknowledge that corruption is deeply rooted within their ranks [1, 2]. A statement was also made that the army chief of staff appeared before the high governance authority to declare his assets [3]. However, there is no specific mention of integrity and risk management measures despite the arrests made.

Messages against corruption within the armed forces are regularly broadcast during official army ceremonies. The message from the top is repeated with the same conviction that corruption is eating away at the armed forces. This message is conveyed by the ministers responsible for defence and security, by the high command and all officers, as well as during ceremonies [1]. All official messages are read out in units and kept in the archives of the Ministry of Defence. Charters of good conduct are displayed in all police stations in Côte d’Ivoire. They highlight the harmful effects of corruption [2]. In addition, in the rare media appearances of defence and security officials in Côte d’Ivoire, the ramifications of corruption and poor governance by the forces are mentioned [3].

The Ministry of Defence, Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), and Service Chiefs are all obliged to communicate a zero-tolerance policy for corruption. This is informed by the position on corruption taken by the ruling government. (1) Internal communications within the services have reinforced this stance. However, such communications are not open to public consumption. In a July 2021 Statement to the Ghana News Agency, the Minister of Defence stated that “Normally, we don’t discuss security matters outside and that is why some members of the public might think wrongly that nothing is being done about military brutalities”. (1) It is also generally assumed that strict adherence to military regulations provides safeguards against corruption. Consequently, superintending over rigorous enforcement of rules and regulations and adherence to strict disciplinary measures are considered effective communication against corruption in the military. In that same vein, perceived attempts to cover up misconduct is considered an affront to commitment to integrity measures within the Military. (2) The GAF has demonstrated its commitment to upholding integrity in communication by issuing communiques that detail their operations and dispel public doubts about their commitment to integrity. Brigadier General E. Aggrey-Quashie, Director General of Public Relations at the GAF, demonstrated this in a press release regarding the killing allegations made against troops stationed at Bawku during a renewed clash between conflicting factions on January 12, 2024 (3). The press release detailed the whole incident and how the troops had conducted themselves, declaring the allegations that the military targeted a specific group within the conflict as false and unfounded. (3)

The Minister of Defence and Service Chiefs use public events and media engagements to reassure the general public of their commitment to anti-corruption and integrity. In July 2021, following alleged incidents of military brutality in Wa, in the Upper West Region of Ghana, the Minister of Defence assured the public, in an interview with the Ghana News Agency, that efforts were being made to ensure the perpetrators would be sanctioned. (1) Similarly in November 2023, the Minister of Defence directly addressed issues of corruption associated with the supposed selling of Military lands to private developers.(2) The measures that have iterated by the engagement of the Minister of Defence do not usually detail the specific measures deployed to address the issues.

Unit commanders have effectively communicated the military’s role in ensuring stability and preserving democracy in the country. Colonel George A. Biah (retired) exemplified this by advising personnel to refrain from partisan politics while remaining passionate and committed to their mandate of ensuring peace and security. This advice was given during a drum parade commemorating the 79th anniversary of the Battle of Myohaung. (1) Similarly, during a working visit, Contingent Commander Colonel George Abosi Oppong advised Ghanaian troops in Lebanon to remain disciplined and uphold the highest level of integrity despite the ongoing conflict between Israel and Palestine. (2) Inclusively, the Inspector General of the Ghana Armed Forces, Brigadier General Mohammed Mustapha, led an eight-man delegation to pay a working visit to the Economic and Organised Crime Office (EOCO) on May 18, 2022, to familiarise the force with the activities of EOCO and also explore paths for collaboration in the fight against crime. (3) In a similar working visit, the Inspector General of the Ghana Armed Forces, Brigadier General Mohammed Mustapha, visited the Office of the Special Prosecutor (OSP) on September 30, 2022. They discussed issues regarding information sharing and prosecutions in matters relating to corruption and corruption-related offences. (4) Inclusively, during a graduation ceremony of Course 81 students of the Ghana Armed Forces, the Executive Director of the Economic and Organized Crime Office (EOCO), Commissioner of Police (COP), Maa Yaa Tiwaa Addo-Danquah, was invited as a speaker who admonished graduating officers on their need to commit to values that promote discipline, integrity and dedication in the application of the knowledge and skills gained during the training process. (5) All the cases cited suggest that despite the fact that senior members of the force speak about the need for the commitment to the values of discipline, integrity, and anti-corruption, their statements do not explicitly talk about the respective measures in detail and how they are dealing with it.

There is a consistency in the Ministry of Defence’s messaging, demonstrating their commitment to transparency and accountability. However, their focus has often narrowly focused on employment malpractice. During the most recent internal performance contracting event, the Cabinet Secretary for Defence emphasised the ministry’s dedication to public stewardship and resource management. The ministry pledged to be responsible, transparent, and accountable in executing its mandate [1].
Furthermore, at the Commissioning of Officers ceremony for the Kenya Armed Forces, Major General John Omenda, Commander of the Kenya Air Force (KAF), stressed the importance of integrity, transparency, and sound financial management to the newly commissioned officers [2]. The Kenya Defence Force continues to face recruitment integrity issues. The Vice CDF noted that 21 recruits were facing court martial charges for malpractices linked to recruitment [3].
However, internal messaging has been largely confined to specific events and often focuses narrowly on recruitment malpractice. While recruitment irregularities are acknowledged internally [3], there is no indication of a sustained or institutionalised communication strategy addressing integrity issues more broadly across the ministry or KDF structures.

General Ogolla (Deceased) addressed accusations of inaction against corruption in the Kenya Defence Forces [2]. He refuted these claims, noting that corruption cases, mainly during recruitment, are prosecuted. Ogolla emphasised KDF’s zero tolerance of corruption, stating severe consequences for guilty officers. He urged the public not to offer bribes during recruitment, questioning the integrity of soldiers who pay for positions. He informed the public that new anti-corruption mechanisms within KDF were being implemented, focusing on investigating and prosecuting cases, particularly during recruitment. [3]
Additionally, the oath of office required by the Kenya Defence Forces Act includes a clause to uphold integrity [1]. However, public messaging beyond these occasional remarks appears rare, and there is no evidence that anti-corruption messaging is regularly embedded in national speeches, or institutional campaigns by senior leaders.
Public commitment to integrity has been expressed by top defence officials, but evidence suggests these statements are centered around specific issues rather than part of a broader or recurring integrity campaign.

While the KDF have implemented anti-corruption measures, the effectiveness of these efforts remains a subject of debate. Service publications emphasise anti-corruption messaging and prevention mechanisms, featuring contributions from the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission (EACC) and other government departments. The KDF Journal includes contributions from the EACC and other agencies, focusing on the importance of transparency and good governance [1]. Such materials aim to set expectations for conduct and raise awareness of internal controls. However, the impact of these initiatives on reducing corruption within the KDF is not conclusively established [1].
Furthermore, the KDF’s strategy of highlighting anti-corruption measures in recruitment documents demonstrates a commitment to integrity from the outset. This approach is intended to deter misconduct and establish clear ethical expectations for both new and existing personnel. Nevertheless, challenges persist in fully eradicating corruption within the military structure [2]. However, the frequency and institutional reach of these materials remain unclear. It is not evident whether these are published regularly or if service chiefs actively and routinely communicate anti-corruption standards beyond these documents. Without data on distribution, regularity, or measurable impact, it is difficult to assert that leadership has established a strong or consistent internal communications culture around anti-corruption.

On the one hand, the Defence Minister and deputies occasionally issue public warnings against corruption and larceny within the MoD and AFL. However, these statements are often met with public scepticism due to perceptions of selective enforcement, where junior officers face reprimands for minor infractions while senior officials implicated in audit reports remain unpunished.[1][2]
Regarding internal communication, any public statements by the Chief of Staff (CoS) on sensitive policies, including anti-corruption measures, require prior approval from the Defence Minister. Journalists seeking interviews with senior personnel must submit questions in advance, ensuring alignment between the AFL and MOD on official messaging. The purpose of this bureaucracy is to ensure that both the AFL and Defence are aligned on matters of sensitive policy, such as anti-corruption.[3]
On the other hand, unit commanders are tasked with incorporating anti-corruption principles into their SOPs, emphasising accountability and adherence to ethical standards during deployments. This approach aims to institutionalise anti-corruption measures within daily military operations.
The MOD has organised technical capacity-building workshops focusing on defence governance and reform processes. These sessions aim to enhance staff understanding of budgeting, corruption risks, and mitigation strategies. Collaborations with entities like the Liberia Anti-Corruption Commission (LACC) and the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning (MFDP) have been instrumental in these efforts.[4]
To sum up, the messaging from leadership is occasional and bureaucratic. There is evidence of willingness (e.g., workshops, SOPs), but not yet a full institutionalisation of messaging or broad ownership by all top-level leaders.

Commitment to issues of anti-graft is often expressed through the press and the public affairs section of the Ministry of National Defense through speeches and interviews.[1] For instance, there are references integrity in recruitment and apolitical standards by the Minister on the occasion marking the 65th Armed Forces Day (2022).[2] However, journalists inquiring about officials’ commitment towards anti-graft must submit their questions for review before the interviews are granted. Senior officials, including the minister, are the ones deciding to grant the interview. The CoS cannot comment publicly on Defence matters without the consent of the Minister of Defence. Generally, in interviews, questions and script are agreed beforehand.[3] Matters of anti-corruption remain an unpopular subject within the defence sector. These issues are not generally addressed at public events.

In the Liberian defence sector, it is rare for senior officials such as the Defence Minister or the Chief of Staff of the AFL to issue public statements specifically related to anti-corruption.[1]
However, some mid-to-senior-level figures, such as the Deputy Minister of Defence for Administration, have occasionally made public remarks aligned with their official duties. These statements generally focus on administrative accountability or fiscal discipline, rather than broader anti-corruption strategies.[2] Mid-level officials occasionally make remarks aligned with their duties: for example, the Deputy Minister of Defence for Administration highlighted fiscal accountability and procurement discipline at the September 2024 MoD technical workshop with the PPCC, LACC, and MFDP.[3] However, consistent anti-corruption advocacy by unit commanders is not documented, suggesting very limited visibility of such messaging at that level.
While procedural commitments exist such as SOPs, the lack of consistent public advocacy by top defence leaders on anti-corruption issues suggests a low level of strategic communication from the top.

The Ministry of Defense has adopted an Internal Anti-Corruption Policy (P.I.L.C.C). These are strategies to better combat acts of corruption within the Ministry of Defense. In this document, the military hierarchy defined areas of intervention against internal corruption. In particular, we note a desire to conduct periodic awareness campaigns among members of the defense forces as well as the establishment of a system for evaluating the appropriation of the staff code of conduct in matters of corruption [1]. The defense ministry said it had given directives to fight against all forms of corruption within the Malagasy armed forces. One of the objectives is to guarantee the integrity of the military [2]. Among the areas of intervention are the “education and prevention” component and the “Repression” component.

The Minister of Defense and the Prime Minister communicate a lot on the importance of the fight against corruption within the defense forces. The head of government indicated that corruption, in all its forms, must be eradicated to reassure the population and thus establish a serene security environment [1]. When he took office in January 2024, the new defense minister made it clear that his main priority is the fight against corruption. He spoke of the establishment of a new code of conduct for members of the defense forces [2]. The public commitment of the leaders of the armed forces to the fight against corruption is widely recognized. These leaders express it at almost every event in which the armed forces are involved. They express it during public speeches or at press conferences [3].

The military hierarchy insists on almost every occasion, such as graduation ceremonies or parades, the imperative for the military to prevent any act of corruption. Thus, the Anti-Corruption Unit of the Ministry of Defense intervenes in all structures of the ministry (attached organizations, general directorates, headquarters, military formations of the armies, etc.). The prevention aspect is highlighted. It consists of activities linked to the popularization of texts relating to the fight against corruption within the Ministry of Defense, as well as appropriation by personnel. It aims to remind the forces the values ​​​​linked to integrity and transparency of public services in order to prevent and reduce the risks of corruption [1]. For unit leaders, public engagement is not always easy because they must respect the duty of silence and must have the authorization of the senior military hierarchy [2].

Apart from the prohibition contained in the general status of military personnel and the army service regulations, which govern the attitude of military personnel and impose general prohibitions, there are no internal communications concerning a commitment to integrity and the fight against corruption from the Minister of Defence, the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces, or the service chiefs as an institution.[1] Furthermore, although there is no trace of any communication from the Minister of Defence and Veterans or the Chief of Staff in this regard, it should be noted that in a speech delivered on 24 January 2024, the President of the transition declared that he did not wish to see anyone appear in a corruption case, “whether close to him or not”. He also stressed that petty corruption in offices had to be combated.[2] The issue of corruption, as well as any other issue that could affect the reputation of the army, is considered taboo.

There is no public commitment on the part of the Minister of Defence, the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces or the Heads of Service as an institution.[1]

Statements of commitment from senior civil servants in the Ministry of Defence or the armed forces are rare or non-existent.[1]

The commitment to combat corruption in the Ministry of National Defence and the Armed Forces was presented by the President of the Republic, as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, in his speech on the occasion of the opening of the Thirty-First Coordinating Council of the Ministry of the Interior, in February 2021 [1]. This commitment has also been reiterated publicly on several occasions: during the 59th Anniversary of the FADM in 2023 [2]; by the Minister of National Defence through the Permanent Secretary on the International Day for Preventing and Combating Corruption [3]; and by the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces, who has repeatedly addressed the issue, including in 2022 when the entry of new recruits was cancelled due to corruption in the recruitment process [4].
While these examples illustrate a willingness to speak publicly against corruption, the record shows they are concentrated in the past three years following the appointment of Major-General Cristóvão Chume as Minister of National Defence in November 2021.

The public commitment is demonstrated through interviews with journalists and CSOs, and statements at events and conferences [1] where the Armed Forces participate, especially in seminars (Peace Café and Strategic Studies Workshop organised by the Center for Strategic Studies at Joaquim Chissano University) [2]. Since 2020, due to the effects of the “Hidden Debts” trial, the anti-corruption discourse has been part of the public discourse of the Armed Forces, with explicit reference to the integrity and good governance of defence, and to the management of corruption risk [3, 4].
Furthermore, senior Armed Forces officials have publicly addressed integrity and anti-corruption issues in several high-level forums. This includes their participation in the 2021 Strategic Colloquium and Strategic Studies Workshop, hosted by Joaquim Chissano University, where panel discussions focused on integrity in defence governance and on preventing corruption risks in military operations [5]. Similarly, during the 2022 Roundtable on Civil–Military Relations at the Military Academy in Nampula, top officers explicitly discussed integrity, transparency, and the role of defence governance reforms in combating corruption [6]. The recurrence of such statements in multiple forums between 2020 and 2023 indicates a consistent public message from top-level defence leadership.

In the efforts to operationalise the anti-corruption law [1] and the strategy to combat corruption in public administration [2], commanders and unit leaders, following public speeches by leaders of the Armed Forces (such as the President of the Republic) [3, 4, 5] have demonstrated their commitment to integrity, good governance and the fight against corruption in their units, through public statements at the closing ceremony of the IX Training Course for Sergeants of Permanent Staff and the XIII Course for Militia Sergeants of the Armed Forces of Defence of Mozambique [6]. In an interview, it was mentioned that although the commitment is reflected in the publications, the command units and leaders do not address specific measures on issues related to integrity and risk management [7].

Despite national anti-corruption policies under Presidents Issoufou and Bazoum [1][2], internal communications within the defense sector regarding integrity and anti-corruption remain superficial and infrequent. While a formal policy exists with penalties for corruption, the Defense Minister, Chief of Defence, and Single Service Chiefs have demonstrated little public or internal commitment to enforcing these measures [3]. The 2020 corruption scandal, which revealed large-scale embezzlement within the military, exposed a systemic failure to address corruption internally, with key figures escaping accountability or even receiving promotions [4]. The lack of decisive action and transparent internal discourse on anti-corruption suggests that any communication on integrity within the defense hierarchy is largely symbolic. Unlike other government branches that have publicly engaged in anti-corruption efforts, specifically under President Bazoum governance the defense leadership has remained notably silent, reinforcing a culture of impunity rather than integrity. [5][6]

Between 2018 and 2025, public commitment to anti-corruption and integrity measures within Niger’s defense sector has remained largely absent or superficial. Under Presidents Issoufou and Bazoum, anti-corruption policies were formally integrated into governance frameworks [1][2], yet the Defense Ministry, the Defence Minister, the Chief of Defence, and Single Service Chiefs did not actively or consistently engage in public discourse on these measures [4]. The 2020 military corruption scandal, involving large-scale embezzlement of public funds, further illustrated a systemic failure to address corruption at the highest levels [4]. While other branches of government, particularly under President Bazoum, made visible commitments to integrity reforms [6], the defense sector remained silent, reinforcing perceptions of impunity. Since the military coup in 2023, the National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland (CNSP), led by General Abdourahamane Tiani, has publicly positioned anti-corruption as a core governance pillar [5,6]. Ministers within the CNSP government, such as Minister of Justice and Human Rights Alio Daouda, have explicitly reaffirmed the state’s commitment to fighting corruption, with legal actions taken against members of the judiciary [7]. However, no public statements or commitments specifically addressing corruption within the military have been identified. Despite broader governmental rhetoric, top defense officials have not directly engaged in public discussions or made explicit declarations regarding integrity reforms within the armed forces. The communication on anti-corruption remains broad and political rather than institutionally specific, and there is no clear evidence that top defense officials themselves have addressed these issues in public forums. Finally,t he adoption of Ordinance No. 2024-05 has prevented any communication on corruption in the defence sector.

There is no evidence of public commitment to anti-corruption from unit commanders within the Nigerien Armed Forces. While national policies under Presidents Issoufou and Bazoum prioritized anti-corruption [1][2], and the 2023 CNSP government has emphasized governance reforms [3], unit commanders have remained silent on these issues. The 2020 military corruption scandal, involving large-scale embezzlement [4], was met with impunity rather than accountability, with no public response or corrective measures from unit-level leadership. Unlike some government sectors, where ministers have addressed corruption publicly [5], no unit commanders have issued statements, speeches, or media interviews on integrity or anti-corruption efforts that could be identified by the assessor [6,7,8].

There is some evidence of internal commitment to anti-corruption within Nigeria’s defence institutions, primarily through public pronouncements by top officials of the Ministry of Defence, military authorities such as Service Chief, and Military Commanders. For example, in March 2023, the Chief of Army Staff (COAS), Lt. Gen. Faruk Yahaya, warned commanders against inducement and actions that could compromise election security [1]. Similarly, in May 2023, the Defence Intelligence Agency (DIA) instructed defence attachés and finance officers to uphold anti-corruption laws and due process [3]. In December 2023, the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defence emphasised that combating corruption is a collective responsibility of civil servants, in alignment with the broader goals of the Tinubu administration [2].

While these statements show that anti-corruption is a talking point at high levels, there is limited evidence to suggest that such pronouncements are regular, institutionalised, or part of a sustained internal campaign. Moreover, there is insufficient publicly available information on whether these top-down messages translate into concrete action at the operational level. As such, the depth of commitment to integrity among rank-and-file personnel remains uncertain.

Additionally, recent reports of alleged corruption within the DIA, including inflated staffing numbers and delayed wage payments [4], further underscore the gap between rhetoric and practice. These cases suggest that despite public commitments, integrity issues and allegations of corruption in defence institutions persist.

There is some evidence that senior officials in Nigeria’s defence sector have publicly declared their commitment to tackling corruption. For instance, in December 2023, the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Defence, Dr. Ibrahim Abubakar Kana, addressed ministry staff on the dangers of corruption, emphasising that fighting corruption is a collective responsibility of all civil servants [1]. In August 2023, the Defence Minister publicly promised to reform the security architecture, which implicitly included commitments to improve integrity [2].

However, these public pronouncements appear sporadic and event-driven, typically coinciding with significant milestones (e.g., appointments, staff sensitisation days) rather than forming part of a consistent or institutionalised communication strategy. There is no evidence of regular or scheduled public statements by the Defence Minister, Permanent Secretary, or Service Chiefs reiterating commitments to integrity or anti-corruption measures on an ongoing basis.
Moreover, while these statements set a general policy direction and highlight values, they lack detail on specific integrity measures or management of corruption risks, and there is little indication that they translate into systematic action to reduce corruption vulnerabilities within the defence sector. This limited follow-through is underscored by continued allegations of corruption; for example, civil society organisations recently called for the Defence Minister’s removal over alleged corruption and embezzlement during his tenure as governor of Zamfara State [3].

There is evidence that some unit commanders across Nigeria have publicly warned their personnel against corruption and unprofessional conduct. For example, in July 2024, the Commander of the 14 Brigade, Nigerian Army, Brigadier General Diya, explicitly warned troops against extorting money from civilians, stating that corruption and indiscipline would not be tolerated and promising disciplinary action against offenders [4]. Similarly, in August 2023, the 82 Division of the Nigerian Army issued a directive prohibiting extortion of civilians by personnel within its command [3].
These warnings from senior officers at unit or divisional levels were often issued in response to investigative reports or widespread public complaints. For instance, HumAngle’s June 2023 investigation exposed systemic extortion at checkpoints in Borno state by multiple security agencies, including the army, prompting subsequent statements from army commands [2].
However, based on available evidence, these pronouncements appear reactive, rather than part of a regular, proactive internal communication strategy. No information could be identified regarding regular service publications, bulletins, or standing orders specifically addressing anti-corruption or integrity at the unit level.

In Senegal, the President of the Republic, as the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, has made a clear commitment to take measures to fight corruption.[1] In his political vision that implies strengthening the different anti-corruption agencies. This commimtment is implemented by the various public services, including the defence and security forces through their chiefs. [1] Colonel Papa DIOUF, Head of the Gendarmerie’s Employment and Operations Department, made a presentation on the mechanisms for combating corruption in the military, particularly in the Gendarmerie, as part of a visit to the national anti-corruption office. The military officer highlighted all the mechanisms and measures adopted by the command to actively combat corruption. He also explained to the audience the zero tolerance measure in force, as well as the very intransigent system of sanctions for all deviant acts. [2] In November 2018, the commander of the Senegalese territorial gendarmerie revealed, in a memo, the existence in some brigades of illegal coffers fed by the fruit of this racket on the roads. The Senegalese gendarmerie spokesman has indicated that measures will soon be taken to put an end to this practice. Following this denunciation of corruption in certain brigades, investigations continued and the results revealed that this was a nationwide practice. However, the results of the investigations and the sanctions that followed were not disclosed to the public. [3] The Senegalese government has implemented several measures to combat corruption within the defence and security forces, including strengthening control mechanisms, improving transparency and accountability, and raising awareness and training security personnel. Bodies such as the General State Inspectorate and the Court of Auditors exercise external control over the activities of the security forces, particularly in terms of financial management. [4]

Public statements from the President, Prime Minister and Defence leaders emphasize anti-corruption, particularly in speeches and during official events. At an inter-ministerial committee meeting, Prime Minister Ousmane Sonko pointed the finger at a number of factors he believes to be responsible for road accidents, including corruption within the road safety forces. [1] . The commander of the Senegalese territorial gendarmerie revealed, in a memo, the existence in some brigades of illegal coffers fed by the fruit of this racket on the roads. The Senegalese gendarmerie spokesman has indicated that measures will soon be taken to put an end to this practice. [3] An arms contract signed by the Senegalese government in early 2022 with notorious foreign traffickers will be subject to an audit. This is the decision announced by the Senegalese Prime Minister during the Council of Ministers meeting on 29 May. In his statement, Prime Minister Ousmane Sonko emphasised the urgency of auditing the significant financial resources allocated by the State, particularly those intended for the supply of security equipment, emergency vehicles and technical equipment.[4]

The commitment to integrity and the fight against corruption is reflected in statements of senior staff and in service publications. For instance, the Commander of the Senegalese Territorial Gendarmerie, Brigadier General Moussa Fall, says that he has observed the opening of accounts in some brigades without any legal basis. According to him, these funds range from 10,000 and 15,000 CFA francs per day to 100,000 per week, and are fed by a racket organised by brigade leaders. The head of the gendarmerie cited the case of three brigades in the southern, central-western and central gendarmerie legions, adding that investigations had revealed that this was a nationwide practice. [1] OFNAC whose mission is to prevent and combat fraud and corruption, related practices and offences, with a view to promoting integrity and probity in the management of public affairs, in its reports show that there is an explicit reference to integrity and good governance in defence, which manages the risks of corruption, especially in prevention and sanctions [2] . The new President of the Republic, supreme commander of the armed forces, said in his address to the nation that he intends to reform the National Office for Combating Fraud and Corruption by giving it more power, and that its work will be extended to all civil servants, without exception, as well as to all elective or nominative posts involving budgetary management, regardless of size. The President asserts that ‘no change, no break is possible in an environment of endemic corruption’ [3] Moreover, in a statement signed by the head of the Communication and Public Relations Division of the Ministry of Armed Forces on an incident involving gendarmes and motorists, we read: “The High Command of the Gendarmerie has identified the three gendarmes involved in this incident. A command investigation was immediately opened to determine responsibilities. However, the behaviour and words of those involved are already reprehensible. They are diametrically opposed to the rules of ethics and professional conduct that guide the actions of the Gendarmerie and the principles of service execution.” The High Command of the National Gendarmerie attaches great importance to the principles of ethics, integrity and respect for human rights, which form the basis of the legitimacy of the Gendarmerie’s actions in the service of the population. [4]

While the Department of Defence has a Corruption and Fraud Prevention Plan as legally required and makes overtures on the importance of anti-corruption, there is either a lack of commitment or effectiveness in the implementation of anti-corruption measures. [1] Statements by the Auditor-General as well as the Department of Defence’s Internal Audit Committee show a lack of commitment to strengthening the internal control environment to prevent corruption risks including failure to comply with legislative provisions such as requiring officials in supply-chain management positions to disclosure financial assets. Numerous allegations of grand corruption and irregularity likewise illustrate a lack of commitment to anti-corruption with the former Minister of Defence herself arrested on allegations of grand corruption during her time in office. [2] Her successor has likewise been criticised for a lack of disciplinary action against financial misconduct, fraud and irregularity within the department.[3]

There is some evidence of public commitment by senior defence officials to anti-corruption efforts. For example, in the 2023/2024 Budget Vote Speech, the Minister of Defence and Military Veterans stated that the department “will be reviewing procurement systems to reduce exposure to corruption,” and acknowledged that past practices had led to a “decay” in internal systems. [1] However, this appears to be a one-off statement, and there is no regular or institutionalised pattern of public updates or ministerial speeches focusing on anti-corruption commitments [3].

Similarly, the Chief of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) addressed anti-criminality concerns at the 2023 Anti-Criminality Conference, hosted by the SANDF. The event highlighted the importance of protecting the integrity of the force and included remarks about internal criminality and corruption. However, the Chief did not outline specific policy measures, and it is unclear whether such statements are issued regularly or followed up with concrete actions. [2] [3]

Service publications provide evidence of the level of commitment to anti-corruption within the military. This includes high-level statements from the Chief of the South African National Defence Force [1], statements against corruption at graduation ceremonies [2], and reflections on the findings of the Military Ombud in relation to misconduct. [3] However, in most cases corruption is dealt with in a cursory way without significant detail on interventions or the importance of anti-corruption to the defence sector.

There is very limited information regarding internal communication on corruption from the chiefs/ministers of the South Sudanese Ministry of Defence and Veteran Affairs[1]. However, to some extent, there are commitments by the defence and security institutions to anti-corruption and integrity measures. These have been exemplified when these institutions called on the National Transitional Committee (NTC) to provide accountability for the funds provided by the government for the unification of forces under the R-ARCSS [2]. These have been publicly expressed during formal meetings and reports of the Agreement institutions and mechanisms during monthly RJMEC meetings. The NTC attempted to provide some form of accountability in its response.

There is limited transparency and communication from top defence officials in South Sudan regarding corruption and integrity matters. Rarely do defence leaders give media interviews or public speeches explicitly addressing anti-corruption efforts. This silence extends to reports of corruption incidents within the Ministry of Defence, making it difficult to gauge the government’s true stance on tackling corruption within the military. [1] Historically, very few cases of corruption in the defence sector have been made public. One notable instance occurred in 2015 when Major General John Lat, Director of Procurement at the Ministry of Defence, and Lieutenant General Bior Ajang Duot, the then under-secretary at the ministry, were suspended for alleged corruption. [2] This suspension marked one of the few times where corruption was acknowledged publicly in the military leadership. More recently, in April 2023, General Chol Thon addressed corruption allegations when the military was accused of extorting money from returnees at Paloch airstrip in Upper Nile State. [3] Thon denied the claims, but his response did not go far enough to demonstrate a broader commitment to fighting corruption. The issue was brought up by members of parliament, who also cited corrupt practices at evacuation centres, yet Thon did not address those allegations, further underlining the lack of comprehensive communication on integrity issues. [3] While it is within the purview of defence officials to respond to specific allegations, a more proactive stance on anti-corruption efforts is expected from top military leaders. Publicly demonstrating a strong commitment to integrity could foster greater accountability and trust, both within the military ranks and from the South Sudanese public.

There is very limited information regarding internal communication on corruption from the unit commanders and leaders of the South Sudanese Ministry of Defence and Veteran Affairs. A public official within the Ministry of Defence could not confirm either the existence of communication on the commitment to integrity and anticorruption. If such communication exists, then it is not publicly available. However, recently, some commanders, especially from the opposition forces, formally expressed their views regarding funding concerns which were meant to facilitate their welfare, office space and implementation of transitional security arrangements activities, urging for timeliness and transparency in disbursement of funds. [3]

The issue of corruption within the Ugandan military is a recurring theme, evidenced by the frequent warnings issued by both the Commander-in-Chief, President Museveni, and high-ranking officers like General Muhoozi Kainerugaba. President Museveni’s repeated condemnations, particularly regarding fuel siphoning and embezzlement of funds, highlight the persistence of these problems [1][2]. The fact that the Chief of Defence Forces, General Kainerugaba, also emphasises the importance of integrity and actively seeks to develop anti-corruption strategies further underscores the severity of the situation. This consistent messaging indicates that corruption is not an isolated incident but rather an ongoing challenge that requires continuous attention.
Efforts to combat corruption within the Uganda People’s Defence Forces (UPDF) include presidential directives aimed at addressing the problem, as well as General Kainerugaba’s initiatives to formulate comprehensive anti-corruption strategies. These strategies involve seeking input from various stakeholders, including junior officers and civilian experts, suggesting a multi-faceted approach. Additionally, logistics officers are being specifically cautioned against corrupt practices, demonstrating an effort to address corruption within the logistical operations of the military [3]. However, the continued need for these warnings implies that existing measures may not be entirely effective and that the historical context of corruption within Uganda, and the complexities of military procurement and logistics, create a difficult environment to fully eradicate corruption. Therefore, while there are clear efforts to combat corruption, the frequency of warnings from top officials underscores the seriousness of the issue and the need for more robust and consistently enforced anti-corruption measures .

The Ministry of Defence and Veteran Affairs is demonstrably engaged in internal efforts to combat corruption, as evidenced by Mrs. Buturo’s caution to protocol officers and staff against “self-destructive vices” during a recent training session [1]. This internal focus is further supported by the Chief of Defence Forces’ commitment to rooting out corruption within the UPDF, a commitment bolstered by his active solicitation of input from diverse stakeholders to develop comprehensive anti-corruption strategies. This collaborative approach, involving junior officers and civilian experts, aims to foster both effective strategies and a sense of shared ownership, potentially enhancing the likelihood of successful implementation. The fact that the Under Secretary of Finance and Administration is making statements on this issue, shows that the efforts to stop corruption are spread throughout the ministry [2].
However, a notable disconnect exists between the ministry’s internal anti-corruption activities and its public communication. While communications staff regularly issue statements and publications regarding integrity and anti-corruption, these messages are not consistently reinforced by top officials at public events. This disparity creates a perception gap, potentially undermining the credibility of the ministry’s anti-corruption efforts. While the ministry may be undergoing internal reforms and has made integrity commitments, the lack of visible, public articulation of these measures by top officials raises questions about the depth of their commitment and the effectiveness of the communication strategy. This absence of public reinforcement could lead to public scepticism and a diminished sense of accountability, despite the dedicated internal work being done.

The Uganda People’s Defence Forces (UPDF) demonstrates a degree of transparency by openly acknowledging and addressing corruption within its ranks, as evidenced by the repeated warnings issued to its officials.[2] The specific caution given to logistics officers during the retreat at the College of Logistics and Engineering, emphasising the avoidance of corrupt practices and mismanagement, highlights a focused approach to addressing vulnerabilities within a critical operational area. This targeted messaging, delivered by Lt Gen Charles Otema Awany, suggests an awareness of the specific corruption risks associated with logistics and procurement.[1] [2]
However, while the UPDF’s willingness to acknowledge corruption is commendable, the depth to which officials address corruption risks remains questionable. The warnings issued, while frequent, often focus on admonitions against specific acts of corruption, such as mismanagement of logistics or embezzlement. This suggests a reactive approach, addressing symptoms rather than delving into the systemic causes of corruption. While Uganda launched the Zero-Tolerance to Corruption Policy and its 5-year Action Plan in 2019, indicating a national commitment to combating corruption, it is unclear to what extent the internal measures of the UPDF are fully aligned with or driven by this national strategy. To truly address corruption risks in-depth, the UPDF would need to move beyond general warnings and implement comprehensive measures such as rigorous internal audits, transparent procurement processes, whistleblower protection, and a culture of accountability at all levels. Furthermore, public reports showing the results of internal investigations and prosecutions of corrupt officials would demonstrate a more thorough commitment to tackling the root causes of corruption, rather than just the symptoms [3].

The most common form of internal communication solidifying anti-corruption efforts that this assessment was able to identify are commencement ceremonies. This is where army chiefs would usually give speeches to junior officers to refrain from criminal activities in and outside the military barracks [1]. The army chiefs reiterate that those who engage in criminal activities will be severely punished [2]. However, while some junior soldiers are brought before the court martial, and or civilian courts, senior soldiers engage in criminal activities, but they are neither arrested nor brought before the same court martial courts [3, 4]. However, these speeches do not help to deal with corruption in the military.

Defence chiefs often deliver public speeches during military parades, urging junior officers to refrain from criminal conduct [1,2]. These speeches are aimed at promoting anti-corruption measures and upholding integrity within the defence forces [2]. While such statements are intended to preserve the reputation of the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA), they remain largely symbolic, with little practical impact on curbing corruption in practice

Unit commanders in Zimbabwe’s defence forces publicly call for discipline and lawful conduct among soldiers and police officers, typically during annual pass-out parades and official ceremonies [1]. These speeches serve as the primary form of public communication by military leadership regarding professionalism, crime prevention, and national service. However, there is no evidence of any broader or more formal public integrity messaging campaigns outside of these ceremonial addresses.
Despite these appeals, numerous reports highlight ongoing cases of criminal behaviour among junior soldiers, including instances where they have been arraigned before both civilian and court martial courts [2]. These reports suggest that, while public statements are made, their credibility and impact are limited, particularly when allegations of criminal conduct and corruption also implicate senior officers, including unit commanders themselves [3].
The main evidence for these observations comes from media reports, which document both criminal proceedings involving military personnel and allegations of misconduct by senior commanders.